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FOOD CHEMISTRY
A manual designed for Food Chemistry Laboratory courses that meet Institute of Food Technologists undergraduate education standards for degrees in Food Science
In the newly revised second edition of Food Chemistry: A Laboratory Manual, two professors with a combined 50 years of experience teaching food chemistry and dairy chemistry laboratory courses deliver an in-depth exploration of the fundamental chemical principles that govern the relationships between the composition of foods and food ingredients and their functional, nutritional, and sensory properties. Readers will discover practical laboratory exercises, methods, and techniques that are commonly employed in food chemistry research and food product development.
Every chapter offers introductory summaries of key methodological concepts and interpretations of the results obtained from food experiments. The book provides a supplementary online Instructor’s Guide useful for adopting professors that includes a Solutions Manual and Preparation Manual for laboratory sessions.
The latest edition presents additional experiments, updated background material and references, expanded end-of-chapter problem sets, expanded use of chemical structures, and:
A thorough emphasis on practical food chemistry problems encountered in food processing, storage, transportation, and preparation
Comprehensive explorations of complex interactions between food components beyond simply measuring concentrations
Additional experiments, references, and chemical structures
Numerous laboratory exercises sufficient for a one-semester course
Perfect for students of food science and technology, Food Chemistry: A Laboratory Manual will also earn a place in the libraries of food chemists, food product developers, analytical chemists, lab technicians, food safety and processing professionals, and food engineers.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface to the Second Edition xv Preface to the First Edition xvi Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Acids, Bases, and Buffers 1 1.1 Learning Outcomes 1 1.2 Introduction 1 1.2.1 Acids 1 1.2.1.1 Food Acidulants 2 1.2.1.2 Reactions of Food Acids 3 1.2.2 Bases 3 1.2.3 Buffers 3 1.3 Apparatus and Instruments 3 1.4 Reagents and Materials 4 1.5 Procedures 5 1.5.1 Determining the pH of a Solid Food 5 1.5.2 Preparation of a Buffer and Determination of Buffer Capacity 5 1.6 Problem Set 5 1.7 References 6 1.8 Suggested Reading 6 Answers to Problem Set 6 2 Chemical Leavening Agents 7 2.1 Learning Outcomes 7 2.2 Introduction 7 2.2.1 Chemical Leavening Agents 8 2.2.1.1 Baking Soda 8 2.2.1.2 Baking Powders 8 2.2.2 Neutralizing Values 10 2.2.3 Leavening Rates 11 2.2.4 Effect of Leavening Acid on Dough Rheology 11 2.3 Apparatus and Instruments 11 2.4 Reagents and Materials 12 2.5 Procedures 12 2.5.1 Determination of Leavening Rates 12 2.5.1.1 The Apparatus 12 2.5.1.2 Experimental Treatments and Controls 12 2.5.1.3 Protocol 13 2.5.1.4 Data Analysis 13 2.5.2 Chemically Leavened Biscuits 13 2.5.2.1 Biscuit Formula 13 2.5.2.2 Treatments 14 2.5.2.3 Protocol 14 2.5.2.4 Volume Determination of Biscuits 14 2.6 Problem Set 14 2.7 Useful Formulas and Values 15 2.8 References 16 2.9 Suggested Reading 16 Answers to Problem Set 16 3 Properties of Sugars 19 3.1 Learning Outcomes 19 3.2 Introduction 19 3.3 Apparatus and Instruments 20 3.4 Reagents and Materials 21 3.5 Procedures 21 3.6 Study Questions 22 3.7 References 22 3.8 Suggested Reading 22 4 Nonenzymatic Browning 23 4.1 Learning Outcomes 23 4.2 Introduction 23 4.2.1 Caramelization 23 4.2.2 The Maillard Reaction 24 4.2.2.1 Sugar 25 4.2.2.2 Amine 25 4.2.2.3 Temperature 26 4.2.2.4 Concentration 27 4.2.2.5 pH 27 4.3 Apparatus and Instruments 27 4.4 Reagents and Materials 28 4.4.1 Reagents to Be Prepared by the Student 28 4.4.2 Reagents to Be Prepared by the Teaching Staff 28 4.5 Procedures 28 4.5.1 Preparation of a Glucose/Glycine Model System 28 4.5.2 Heating Experiment 29 4.5.3 Measurement of Extent of Browning 29 4.5.4 Browning in Nonfat Dry Milk (Demonstration) 29 4.5.5 Role of Milk in Crust Color of Bread (Demonstration) 29 4.5.6 Browning in Cookies 30 4.5.6.1 Sugar Cookie Formula 30 4.5.6.2 Baking Directions 30 4.6 Problem Set 31 4.7 Study Questions 31 4.8 References 31 4.9 Suggested Reading 32 Answers to Problem Set 32 5 Food Hydrocolloids 33 5.1 Learning Outcomes 33 5.2 Introduction 33 5.2.1 Alginate 34 5.2.2 Alginate Gels 35 5.2.3 Carrageenan 36 5.2.4 Locust Bean Gum and Guar Gum 37 5.2.5 Xanthan Gum 39 5.3 Apparatus and Instruments 39 5.4 Reagents and Materials 39 5.5 Procedures 40 5.5.1 Effect of Heat Treatment on Gelation 40 5.5.2 Effect of Concentration on Viscosity 40 5.5.3 Emulsion Stability 40 5.5.4 Diffusion Setting and Internal Setting Alginate Gels 41 5.5.4.1 Diffusion Setting Gel 41 5.5.4.2 Internal Setting Gel 41 5.6 Study Questions 41 5.7 References 41 5.8 Suggested Reading 42 6 Functional Properties of Proteins 43 6.1 Learning Outcomes 43 6.2 Introduction 43 6.2.1 Soybean Processing: Soy Milk, Tofu, and Soybean Protein Isolate 44 6.2.2 Assaying Protein Concentration 45 6.3 Apparatus and Instruments 45 6.4 Reagents and Materials 46 6.5 Procedures 46 6.5.1 Standard Curve for the Bradford Protein Assay 46 6.5.2 Effect of pH on Protein Solubility 46 6.5.2.1 Preparation of Protein Extracts 46 6.5.2.2 Measurement of Protein Concentration in the Extracts 47 6.5.3 Preparation of Soy Protein Isolate and Tofu 47 6.5.3.1 Extraction 47 6.5.3.2 Soy Protein Isolation 47 6.5.3.3 Production of Tofu 47 6.6 Problem Set 48 6.7 Study Questions 48 6.8 References 48 6.9 Suggested Reading 49 Answers to Problem Set 49 7 Lactose 51 7.1 Learning Outcomes 51 7.2 Introduction 51 7.2.1 Lactose Assay 53 7.3 Apparatus and Instruments 54 7.4 Reagents and Materials 55 7.5 Procedures 55 7.5.1 Lactose and D-galactose Assay Protocol 55 7.5.2 Lactase Assay 55 7.6 Experimental Design 55 7.7 Study Questions 56 7.8 References 56 7.9 Suggested Reading 56 8 Enzymatic Browning: Kinetics of Polyphenoloxidase 57 8.1 Learning Outcomes 57 8.2 Introduction 57 8.2.1 Enzyme Kinetics 57 8.2.2 PPO Assay 61 8.2.3 Control of Enzymatic Browning 62 8.3 Apparatus and Instruments 62 8.4 Reagents and Materials 63 8.5 Procedures 63 8.5.1 Preparation of Crude Enzyme Extract 63 8.5.2 Enzyme Assay 63 8.5.3 Data Treatment 64 8.5.4 Required Notebook Entries 64 8.6 Problem Set 64 8.7 Study Questions 65 8.8 References 66 Answers to Problem Set 66 9 Blanching Effectiveness 67 9.1 Learning Outcomes 67 9.2 Introduction 67 9.3 Apparatus and Instruments 69 9.4 Reagents and Materials 69 9.5 Procedures 70 9.6 Study Questions 70 9.7 References 70 9.8 Suggested Reading 70 10 Lipid Oxidation 71 10.1 Learning Outcomes 71 10.2 Introduction 71 10.2.1 The Chemistry of Lipid Oxidation 71 10.2.2 Control of Lipid Oxidation 75 10.2.2.1 Elimination of Oxygen 75 10.2.2.2 Scavenging of Free Radicals 75 10.2.2.3 Chelation of Metal Ions 76 10.2.3 Measurement of Lipid Oxidation in Foods 76 10.2.3.1 Thiobarbituric Acid Test (TBA Test) 76 10.2.3.2 Peroxide Value 77 10.2.3.3 Conjugated Diene Methods 77 10.2.3.4 Oxygen Bomb Test 77 10.2.3.5 Total and Volatile Carbonyl Compounds 77 10.2.3.6 Anisidine Value Test 77 10.3 Apparatus and Instruments 78 10.4 Reagents and Materials 78 10.5 Procedures: Lipid Oxidation in Turkey Meat 78 10.6 Problem Set: Calculation of TBARS 79 10.7 Study Questions 80 10.8 References 81 10.9 Suggested Reading 81 Answers to Problem Set 82 11 Ascorbic Acid: Stability and Leachability 83 11.1 Learning Outcomes 83 11.2 Introduction 83 11.2.1 Chemistry 83 11.2.2 Functions of Ascorbic Acid in Foods 85 11.2.2.1 Oxygen Scavenger 85 11.2.2.2 Free Radical Scavenger 86 11.2.2.3 Control of Enzymatic Browning 86 11.2.2.4 Dough Improver 87 11.2.3 Stability of Ascorbic Acid 87 11.2.4 Rationale for the Experiment 88 11.3 Apparatus and Instruments 88 11.4 Reagents and Materials 89 11.5 Procedures 89 11.5.1 Ascorbic Acid Standard Curve 89 11.5.2 Effect of pH on Ascorbic Acid Stability 89 11.5.3 Effects of Temperature, pH, and Cu2+ on the Stability of Ascorbic Acid 90 11.5.4 Effect of Cooking on the Ascorbic Acid Content of Cabbage 90 11.6 Problem Set 90 11.7 Study Questions 91 11.8 References 91 Answers to Problem Set 92 12 Hydrolytic Rancidity in Milk 93 12.1 Learning Outcomes 93 12.2 Introduction 93 12.2.1 The Copper Soap Solvent Extraction Method 94 12.3 Apparatus and Instruments 96 12.4 Reagents and Materials 96 12.5 Treatments and Controls 96 12.6 Procedures 97 12.6.1 Standard Curve 97 12.6.2 Free Fatty Acids in Milk 97 12.6.3 Calculations 97 12.7 Problem Set 98 12.8 Study Questions 98 12.9 References 98 12.10 Suggested Reading 98 Answers to Problem Set 99 13 Caffeine in Beverages 101 13.1 Learning Outcomes 101 13.2 Introduction 101 13.3 Apparatus and Instruments 103 13.4 Reagents and Materials 103 13.5 Operation of the HPLC 103 13.6 Procedures 104 13.6.1 Standard Curve 104 13.6.2 Caffeine in Soda and Energy Drinks 105 13.6.3 Caffeine in Coffee 105 13.6.4 Caffeine in Tea 105 13.7 Data Analysis 105 13.8 References 105 13.9 Suggested Reading 106 14 Color Additives 107 14.1 Learning Outcomes 107 14.2 Introduction 107 14.2.1 Binding to Wool 110 14.2.2 Removal from Wool 110 14.2.3 Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) 110 14.2.4 Separation and Identification 111 14.3 Apparatus and Instruments 111 14.4 Reagents and Materials 112 14.5 Procedures 112 14.5.1 Qualitative Identification of Artificial Colors from Food Products 112 14.5.2 Separation and Identification of the Extracted Colors 113 14.5.3 Quantitative Analysis of FD&C Red Dye # 40 in Cranberry Juice 113 14.6 Study Questions 114 14.7 References 114 14.8 Suggested Reading 114 15 Plant Pigments 115 15.1 Learning Outcomes 115 15.2 Introduction 115 15.3 Apparatus and Instruments 119 15.4 Reagents and Materials 119 15.5 Procedures 120 15.5.1 Extraction and Separation of Lipid Soluble Plant Pigments 120 15.5.2 Extraction of Water Soluble Plant Pigments 120 15.5.3 Effect of pH on the Color of Water Soluble Plant Pigments 120 15.5.4 Demonstration 121 15.6 Study Questions 121 15.7 References 121 15.8 Suggested Reading 121 16 Meat Pigments 123 16.1 Learning Outcomes 123 16.2 Introduction 123 16.2.1 Meat Curing 125 16.2.2 Effect of Cooking on Meat Color 126 16.3 Apparatus and Instruments 127 16.4 Reagents and Materials 127 16.5 Procedures 127 16.5.1 Preparation and Spectral Analysis of Myoglobin, Oxymyoglobin, and Metmyoglobin 127 16.5.2 Preparation and Spectral Analysis of Nitric Oxide Myoglobin 128 16.5.3 Concentration of Metmyoglobin, Myoglobin, and Oxymyoglobin 128 16.5.4 Demonstration 129 16.6 Study Questions 129 16.7 References 129 16.8 Suggested Reading 130 17 Meat Tenderizers 131 17.1 Learning Outcomes 131 17.2 Introduction 131 17.3 Apparatus and Instruments 132 17.4 Reagents and Materials 133 17.5 Procedures 133 17.5.1 Preparation of Samples and Standards 133 17.5.1.1 Sample Treatments 133 17.5.1.2 Protein Extraction and Preparation for Electrophoresis 134 17.5.1.3 Preparation of SDS-PAGE Standards for Electrophoresis. 134 17.5.2 Electrophoresis 134 17.5.2.1 Loading and Running the Gel 134 17.5.2.2 Staining the Gel 134 17.5.3 Demonstration 134 17.6 Study Questions 134 17.7 References 135 17.8 Suggested Reading 135 18 Detection of Genetically Engineered Maize Varieties 137 18.1 Learning Outcomes 137 18.2 Introduction 137 18.2.1 Detection of a GE Protein by Immunoassay 140 18.2.2 Detection of a Trans Gene by PCR 141 18.3 Apparatus and Instruments 143 18.4 Reagents and Materials 143 18.5 Procedures 144 18.6 Study Questions 145 18.7 References 145 18.8 Suggested Reading 146 19 Food Emulsions and Surfactants 147 19.1 Learning Outcomes 147 19.2 Introduction 147 19.2.1 Emulsions 147 19.2.2 Surfactants 147 19.2.3 Surfactants in Food Systems 148 19.3 Part I – Butter Churning (Phase Inversion) 150 19.3.1 Materials and Methods 150 19.3.1.1 Materials for Buttermaking 150 19.3.1.2 Buttermaking Procedure 150 19.3.2 Study Questions 151 19.4 Part II – Margarine Manufacture (Use of Surfactant for Semi-solid Foods) 151 19.4.1 Materials and Methods 151 19.4.1.1 Materials for Margarine Manufacture 151 19.4.1.2 Manufacture Procedure 152 19.4.2 Study Questions 152 19.5 Part III – Dispersion of Eugenol in Water (Surfactant Solubilization Capacity) 152 19.5.1 Materials and Methods 153 19.5.1.1 Materials for Dispersion Experiment 153 19.5.1.2 Experimental Procedure 153 19.5.2 Study Questions 154 19.6 Part IV – Mayonnaise Stability 155 19.6.1 Materials and Methods 155 19.6.1.1 Materials for Mayonnaise Experiment 155 19.6.1.2 Experimental Procedure 155 19.6.2 Study Questions 156 19.7 References 156 19.8 Suggested Reading 158 Appendix I 159 Conversion Factors 159 Appendix II 161 Concentration 161 Definition 161 Suggested Reading 162 Appendix III 163 Acids, Bases, Buffers, and pH Measurement 163 Review of pH and Acid–Base Equilibria 163 Acids and Bases 163 Acid/Base Equilibria 163 The pH Scale 165 pK 165 Buffers: Functions and Uses 166 Problems 167 Choosing a Buffer System 169 Preparation of Buffers 171 Activity and Ionic Strength 173 pH Measurement 174 Making pH Measurements 175 References 176 Suggested Reading 176 Appendix IV 177 Spectrophotometry 177 Introduction 177 Operation of a Spectrophotometer 180 Notes for Operators 180 Problem Set 180 References 181 Answers to Problem Set   181 Appendix V 183 Chromatography 183 What Is Chromatography? 183 Chromatography Terminology 183 Types of Chromatography 184 Adsorption Chromatography (AC) 185 Liquid–Liquid Partition Chromatography (LLPC) 185 Bonded Phase Chromatography (BPC) 185 Ion-Exchange Chromatography (IEC) 185 Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC) 185 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 186 The HPLC System 187 References 188 Suggested Reading 189 Appendix VI 191 Electrophoresis 191 Introduction 191 References 195 Suggested Reading 196 Appendix VII 197 Glossary 197